Vedic Period 3

                   

                     Astronomy During the Vedic Period-3

In continuation of the history of Hindu astronomy (do read earlier blogs on the subject). Some mentions of astronomical aspects during the pre-Siddhantic/Vedic period are enumerated. But why were astronomical references found in the Vedas?

The importance of astronomy is stated in Yajurved Vedang Jyotish-3 

वेद: हि यज्ञार्थं अभिप्रवृत्तः कलानुपूर्व्य विहिता च यज्ञः!
तसमद इदं कलाविधानशास्त्रम्
यो ज्योतिषं वेद स वेद यज्ञं

" The Vedas have indeed been revealed for the sake of performances of sacrifices. These sacrifices are dependent on the (various segments of)time. Only he who knows Jyotisha(time calculation)understands the performance of sacrifices"

Interpretation of Vedic texts                                 

Vedic culture personified celestial objects and their actions. Hence the texts carry a background, that has to be deciphered to extract the archaic models of the visible sky. These texts use an allegorical approach to describe the celestial events.

Yaska records three types of interpretations of the Vedic hymns These are अधीयज्ञः(sacrificial), अध्यात्म:(philosophical) अधिदैवः(celestial/divine).

 The use of metaphor is often misinterpreted. The word Soma as perअधिदैवः is Moon, as per अधीयज्ञः is a creeper and as per अध्यात्म:, is manas/mind.

A further difficulty arises, as the Hindu socioreligious pluralistic tradition, which is in constant flux, tends to attribute different meanings to the same word. Hence, some European scholars have termed Vedic texts as mythological or works of fiction. 

Continuing with the astronomical references in the Vedic period 

                                    Divisions of the Day

  The works of धर्म शास्त्र describe the system in which the day was divided into2,3,4,5 and 15 various parts. These are 

2 Parts पूर्वाह्णे,formerhalf अपर्णः laterhalf. 

3 partsपूर्वह्नः, माधयन:,अपर्णः,

4 parts पूर्वह्नः, माधयन:,अपर्णःसयह्नः each part also known as प्रहर,

5 Parts प्रतहःपूर्वह्नः, माधयन:,अपर्णःसयह्नः,

15 parts known as मुहूर्त.

Today we have divided our day into similar parts like Morning, evening, forenoon, afternoon, midday, late evening, early morning, ....etc, and 24 divisions known as hour.

The following lines denote a system of threefold division of the day.

ऋग्भिः पूर्वा दिवि देव ईयते ॥ यजुर्वेदे तिष्ठति मध्ये अहुः ।। सामवेदेनास्तमये महीयते ।॥ वेद रशून्यस्तिभिरेति सूर्यः \।                                                              त. ब्रा. २३. १२

पूर्वाह्लो वं देवानां मध्यंदिनो मनुष्याणामपराह्लः पिर्हृणां ।।               शत. द्रा. २.४. २.८.

" The earlier part is controlled by Gods, the middle one by men , and the later part by Pitris"

Many verses in Taittriya Brahman, Rk Samhita and Atharva Samhita describe the system, of division of the day into various parts, depending upon usage.

There are verses which give out the names of 15 muhurtas. Interestingly some verses do describe the names of 15 muhurta for the night. That means the day and night were divided into 30 parts! (similar to the 24 parts we have today).

These were further divided into 15 sub-muhurtas, later known as 'nadis'

The following verse from Taittriya Brahaman 3.10.1, gives out the names  of 15 मुहूर्त 

चित्रः केतुः प्रभानाभास्त्संभान्‌ ॥ ज्योतिष्मास्तिजस्वानातपंस्तपन्नमि तपन्‌ ।

रोचनो रोचमानः शोभनः शोभमानः कल्याणः ॥।          ते. बृा. ३. १०. १

The texts also give out the names for the 15 muhurtas of the day and 15 for the night in the light half of the month, a total of 30 names. 

Similarly, the texts describe the names of 15 muhurtas for the day and 15 for the night in the dark half of the month.

 Why did the Vedic culture divide a day into 30 parts? Is there any evidence in the Vedic texts that, suggests the Sexagesimal system was used during that time? Ptolemy did use this system. Al-Biruni, in his book, mentions this system was in use in the Vedic period. A day with 30 parts, counting is a sidereal day?

There is mention of kala and kastha in the Narayan Upanishad as a unit of time, however, there is no reference to their interrelationship as a unit of time during the Vedic period.

Though these units were used in the later period as subdivisionsof Muhurta.

The familiar words "Ghatika and Pala" as a division of the day are not mentioned in the Vedic/Pre-Siddhantic period. These were introduced during the post-Siddhantic period.

Some other astronomical references during this period are

Eclipses

The world witnessed a total solar eclipse on 08 April 2024 in the USA. It did create a lot of curiosity and awe about the celestial event. Also, a few precautionary directives were issued in the backdrop of the Solar eclipse. But does an occurrence of an eclipse create disturbances on Earth? There are coincidences, which confirm these speculations.

Rk Samhita describes the Solar eclipse as 

यत्वा सूयं स्वर्भानुस्तमसाविष्यदासुरः ॥ अक्षेत्रविद्य थामुग्धो भुवनान्यदीधयुः ॥ ५॥

स्वर्भानोरधयौंदद्र मायाऽअवो दिवो वत्तं माना अवाहन्‌ ॥ गृल्‌हं सूयं तमसापव्रतेन तुरीयंण ब्रह्मणाऽ विंददच्निः ।। ६॥, 

मामामिमं तव संतमन्र इरस्या दरुग्धो भियसा निगारित्‌ ।! | त्वं मित्रो असि सत्यराधास्ती मेहावतं वरुणस्च राजा ॥ ७॥

ग्राव्णो ह्या युयुजानः सपयंन्‌ कोरिणा देवान्नमसोपशिक्षन्‌ ।। अत्रिः सुयस्य दिवि चक्षुराधात. स्वभःनोरपमाथा श्रघक्षत्‌ ॥ ८ ॥

यं वं सूयं स्वर्भानुस्तमसा विंध्य दासुरः । अत्रयस्तमन्व विंदब्रह्यऽन्ये अक्क्रवन ॥ ९  |

                                                                         ऋ. स. ५. ४९

Description of these 5 verses can be summarised as 

" Oh! God Sun, when Rahu engulfs you with darkness Lord Indra will destroy 'Sarvabhanu'(Rahu). Sage Atri can protect us by dispelling the illusions of Rahu and get Sun free of darkness, sage Atri is the only one who can do this"

This description of eclipse highlights that,

1. The description does not show any apprehension or panic. That means eclipses were a normal celestial event.

2. Sage Atri, alone knew, when the eclipse would begin and end

3. In one expression ' Rahu may nor devour the Sun', but engulfed with darkness. It appears, that, Rahu and darkness are two different aspects. The notion that Rahu/Sarvabhanu devours the Sun would have come at a later date.

4. Vedic people were aware of the eclipses and a few had the knowledge of its prediction.

Planets

Many references are found in the Vedic texts mentioning, the Sun, Moon, Rahu and Ketu ( though Rahu and Ketu are not planets) that leave 5 planets in the visible zodiac. Though there are no specific mentions of these planets. However one can infer that the mentions are, regarding these  5 planets. Like,

अमी ये पंचोक्षणो मध्यं तस्थुमंहो दिवः ॥ 

देवत्रा नु प्रवाच्यं सध्रीचीना नि वावुर्तुवत्तं मे अस्य रोदसी ॥

                                                                       ऋ. स. १. १०५. १०.

"These mighty five are seen in the middle of the vast expanse of the sky. Even though they are seen coming together when I compose hymns in honour of gods, they have all gone away today...."

It is rare to witness all the 5 planets together at the same time. 

However, they were visible from 17-27 April 2022.

Many inferences can be drawn from the above verse. The original Vedic gods are none other than the wonders of nature and those luminous objects in the sky. Nirukta explains the root meaning of the word 'Deva'

is to shine, today we understand this meaning as 'God'. Therefore each planet does represent one god. There are numerous legends, in all cultures, describing the planets, constellations, and celestial objects, with a godly status. Nakshatras are also called the abode of gods, meaning the planets are found amongst the nakshatras.

'Panchdeva' is also mentioned, but it refers to planets rather than gods. We know there are 33 gods,( 12 Aditiyas, 11 Rudras,8 Vasus, Indra and Prajapati). Therefore, this statement regarding the five planets,  confirms that Vedic people had knowledge of planets.

The concept of Ashwin's as gods could have emerged from the two luminaries, Venus and Jupiter, and Ashwinhood was conferred on them When both the planets were seen together. This conjunction is not rare but is not frequent either. Since Venus is always close to the Sun, Jupiter wandes in the sky. The verse from Rk Samhita 5.73.3 explains as 

ईर्मान्यद पुषे वपुर्चक्रं रथस्य येमथुः । पयंन्या नाहुषा युगा मह्भा रर्जासि दीयथः ॥

                                                                            ऋ. सं. ५. ७३. ३.

'Oh, Ashwins! you have kept one luminous wheel of your chariot near the Sun for adorning him and you revolve around the world by the second wheel"

The story clearly indicates the movement of Venus and Jupiter.

Jupiter

There are two verses which give out the discovery of Jupiter 

बहस्पतिः प्रथम जायमानो महो ज्योतिषः परमे व्योमन्‌ ॥ ऋ. सं ४. ५०. ४. अथ. सं २० . ४.

 

" Jupiter was first born in the highest heaven of the shining light"

बहस्पतिः प्रथमं जायमानः॥ तिष्य नक्षत्रमभिसंबभूव ॥  ` ते. ब्रा. ३. १. १.

" Jupiter when born was first visible near the star Tishya(Pushya/

γ,δ,θ Cancri)"

Jupiter can form close conjunction with only 6 nakshatras { Pushya, Magha(Regulus), Vishakha (α,β,γ & ι Librae), Anuradha(β,δ,π, Scorpionis), Shatabhisha (Gama Aquarii), Revati(Zeta Piscium)} and the closest conjunction is with Tishya/ Pushya. 

This is because the maximum latitude of Jupiter is 1 degree 30'.

 Since the ruling deity of Pushya is Jupiter, this conjunction is still considered auspicious. (Guru Pushya Yog). 

Venus

Known as the morning or the evening star. It is one of the luminaries, which has incited many into poetry and prose, an awe-inspiring sight, even for the Vedic people, as mentioned in Rk Samhita 10.123

प्रय वेनश्चोदयत्पुदिनगर्भा ज्योतिजंराय्‌ रजसोविमाने ||                 ऋ.सं. १०. १२३. 

This hymn, " this Vena has risen...." is sung in honour of the deity 'Vena', referring to as a bright celestial object. There is also a mention of Shukra(Venus) as a shining object. Vena and Venus are the same.

Shukra is called Venus in Latin, Kupros in Greek, also known as 'Kupris', a female deity. Thus Vena/Venus, Kupris or cypris are all equivalent and may resemble Vena(h) and Shukra.

It infers that the Vedic people had sufficient knowledge of the 5 planets. 

Meteors and Comets

Comets, known as dhumketu, in all Indian languages, is mentioned in several places in the Vedic literature, RV and AV. Its literal meaning is 'smoke or dust banner'.

The Atharvaṇa Veda has a famous hymn in which dhūmaketu is mentioned along with the sun, moon and rāhu, indicating that in Vedic parlance too the word Ketu should have primarily referred to a visible celestial object. Is it a description of a comet being visible during an eclipse? Similar to the one on 08 April 2024 (Comet 12P-Pons-Brooks) was orbiting the Sun during the eclipse.

Maruts are well-known Vedic deities, taken to represent winds and thunderstorms inducing rain by traditionalists and modern scholars. However, their explicit relation with dhūmaketu provides a clue to their correct decipherment as meteoritic storms. Maruts are a

group of deities, usually known as the sons of Rudra and occasionally directly as Rudrāḥ.

A striking verse from Taittriya Brahman 3.9.22 says

एकं वा एतह्‌ वानामहः ।! यत्संवत्सरः . ते त्रा. ३. ६. २२.

"The year is equivalent to a day of gods"

The notion is that the gods dwell in the  Meru mountains at the north pole. We know, in the polar regions the day lasts for six months and the night for six months. Is it that this knowledge was available to the Vedic people? Yuga measure talks of  1 year of Earth equal to one day of Brahma.

........to be continued with Nakshatra नक्षत्र

___________________________________________

References

1. SB Dixit " Bhartiya Jyoti's Shastra" Part 1

2. William Brennand " Hindu Astronomy"

3. Ancient Indian Astronomy by RN Iyengar.

4. Ancient Astronomy by Prof TS Kuppanna Shastry

5. Paper on 'Vedang Jyotish of Lagdha' by KV Sarma

Vedic Period-2

  Astronomy During the Vedic Period-2

Time Units

KALPA and YUGA are common terms and, are understood as some unit of time denoting a specific period. However, KALPA is not used as a unit of time in Vedas, though it is used extensively during the post-Vedic period.

YUGA as a unit of time, finds a mention in the Vedas in several places. These references in the Vedas suggest that the word yuga does denote a certain period of time. This period is not quantified but is a smaller period of  5 to 10 years.  For example as given in the following verses

 युगे ुगे विदध्यं मृणद्भ्योगनेरथि यशसं धेहि नव्यसीं ॥ 

                                                                   | ऋ. स. ६. द. ५.

"Oh! God of fire, give riches and success to us who offer new words of praise to thee for the  sake of sacrifices in each yuga"__ Rk Samhita

था ओषधीः पूर्वां जाता देवेभ्यस्त्रयुगं पुरा ।

                                      ऋ. सं, १०. 8७. १.

"The herbs created by Gods in three yugas before" ----Rk Samhita. The Scholars have interpreted " Triyuga" as three yugas Kreta, Treta and Dwapar or three seasons Vasant, Varsha and Sharad.

All these references show yuga is used to denote some period, after which the event repeats itself. A periodic nature of time after which a phenomenon recurs, like an eclipse, planet rotations etc.

The word Yuga is used for 

 Emotional, Symbolic, calculation and calendric. Do, not confuse with Dwapar, Treta, Kali...of 432000 years as the duration of Yuga. These are used for calculation purposes.

In Vedang Jyotish, the yuga is taken to be a cycle of 5 years. The names of these years are संवत्सरः,परिवत्सरः,इदावत्सर:' अनुवत्सरः,इद्वत्सरः. These names occur in the Vedic texts but they do not occur in the Vedang Jyotish. There are many verses which mention these years in the ancient Vedic texts. it appears to be a system similar to the 5-year cycle of Vedang Jyotish. 

                    The months were Lunar and the Year was Solar

The caption appears odd, how can we have two different systems to count the same duration. However, this appears logical as most of the astronomical database was compiled by observation during the Vedic age.

It was natural in the Vedic age that the month was counted from the Moon. "Puranmasi", which we understand as the full Moon literally means the tithi on which the month ends. MASA a synonym for Moon was adopted as a time unit for months.

Numerous verses describe the year, having  12 months (13th month as intercalary for adjustment),360 days. The description is, both direct and indirect,for example

्रीणिच वशतानि षष्टिर संव॑त्सरस्याहानि.--सप्त च वं रतानि विंशतिश्च संवत्सरस्थाहोरात्रयेः `                                                             ए. ब्राः ७. १७.

"A year has 360 days , a year has 720 days ans nights together"

 Taitareya Brahman 3.8.3 describes the year and intercalary month, metaphorically as under

दा दशारत्नी रहना कतेव्यए २ च्रथोदशारत्नी देरिति ॥ ऋषभो वा एष ऋतूनां ॥ यत्संवत्सरः ।। तस्य त्रयोदशो मासो विष्टपं ।

॥ ऋषभ एष यज्ञानां ।॥

। यदहवमेधः॥ यथावा ऋवभस्व विष्टपं !! एवमतस्य विष्टपं ॥            ते. त्रा. ३.८. ३.

"Should the reigns in a horse sacrifice be 12 cubits in length or 13? The year of (six) seasons is a kind of bullock whose hunch is the 13th month. The horse sacrifice is the best of all sacrifices..."

The seasons are formed due to the Sun, therefore it was logical to assume that a year has elapsed when a particular season returns, hence the year counting was solar. Full moon to full Moon would then constitute a masa or a month. So the year was solar and the month Lunar.

To keep the seasons and the corresponding month synchronised with the actual environment, some adjustment was done  to match the Lunar month and the Solar year. The indirect reference to intercalary month points to the fact, that some methods were adopted for synchronisation.

As the months were Lunar, the year counting would also have been Lunar, but the Lunar year did not have 360 days, but less than that. However in practice a savan/solar year was in use and hence a mention of intercalary month adjustment, as mentioned above.

 However, In the Hijri calendar the month, say, Muharram, will pass through all seasons because the adjustment is carried out after 33 years (instead of 30-32 months).

There is no reference to any rule, stating how the intercalary month be adjusted during the Vedic age. However, Vedang Jyotish does give out the rules of adjustment in the later period.

Apart from the solar year, we have references to the Savana and Lunar years. There is no reference to Sidereal and Jovian years in the Vedas.

Days

 A Lunar month has only 29 1/2 days, not 30 days as is understood. So in two months, the total number of days is 59. This discrepancy of 1 day needs adjustment. 

A verse from Taittriya Samhita 7.5.6 says

                              षउहर्मासात्संपाचाहरत्सु्चंति             | त. सं. ७.५. ६.

" A day is omitted after some sadahas and masa are observed"

The reason for omitting the day is mentioned in Taittriya Brahaman 5.10.2

                                   यथा वे टतिराध्मात एवसंवसरोनुत्सुष्टः

" If a day is not omitted then the year will swell like bellows made of leather"

Interestingly in the Vedic period, One day of 24 hrs is called 'aha' अह: and a group of six such days are called sadahas and five sadahas make one masa (month) and several such sadahas and masas constituted to make 360 days of savanna year.

So a 6-day week and a 5-week month were prevalent during the Vedic period.

There is no mention of a 7-day week and the names of the 7 days of the week, during the Vedic period, as we know it today.

The only mention is of the 15th day as panchadashi पञ्चदशी. Other terms such as pratipada dwitiya etc may have been used to denote (day one, day two etc), day and nights (what we understand as Tithi), words like Shukla Chaturdashi, and Krishna Panchami have been found to denote the day of light and the dark half of the month.

As per, Taittriya Brahaman different names have been given for the days and nights in the light and dark half of the month. There are 15 names for day and 15 names for night.

 अह: is used to mention a day in a neuter gender form, whereas the word रात्रि, is feminine, hence the names of the nights are used in feminine gender. So ahoratra अहोरात्र is day and night. Hora होरा doesn't come from अहोरात्र.

Tithi

 We all are familiar with the word Tithi तिथि, meaning a day in Lunar month. However, during the Vedic  period, there is no mention of the word तिथि,(the way we understand it today)

                                       Length of the Day

The variable length of the day is due to the Sun.

The following lines in Rk Samhita 8.48.7 describe the phenomena. 

सोमराजन्‌ प्रण आयू'षि तारीरहानीव सूर्यो वासराणि ॥

                                                          ऋ. सं, ८. ४८. ७.

"Oh! Somraja! Increase the length of our lives, just as the sun increases the length of the day, which are dwellings of the world"

The Equinoctal Day

There are a lot of references to the equinox in the Vedas, during this period. The mentions are in the form of annual sacrifices, and that period mentioned relates to the equinox as an indirect meaning. But there is no explicit definition of equinox, on which the days and nights are equal.

........to be continued with parts of the Day.

_________________________________________

References

1. SB Dixit " Bhartiya Jyoti's Shastra" Part 1

2. William Brennand " Hindu Astronomy"

3. Coolebroke Essays.

4. Gen Alexander Cunningham "Book of Indian Eras"

5. Dr Nilesh Oak talks.

Vedic Period

 Astronomy During the Vedic Period-1

The Vedas contain astronomical information but are not exclusively focused on it. Vedic literature deals with a whole lot of topics. A general inference can be drawn from the astronomical mentions in the Vedas. It also shows that the astronomical ideas developed in stages, starting from the Vedic era.

A glance at the Vedas will show, that there exist sufficient references(1) of the description of the sky, Sun, Moon and the stars. The mentions include but are not limited to, the Origin of the Universe and its infinities, Description of the Sun and how it affects the Earth and its inhabitants, description of Earth, Moon and units of time and how it was used, etc.

The knowledge of astronomy gradually developed over the ages and each generation contributed to the texts and upgrading it. 

The astronomical references during the Vedic period were in poetic form and, at times, indirect. One has to understand the etymology to know the intention of the originator.

The Creation, Structure and Origin of the universe1as given in the following verse from Rk Samhita 10.72 

देवानां नु वयं जाना प्रवोचामं विपन्यया ॥ उक्थेषु शस्यमानेषु यः प्यादृत्तरे युगे ॥ १।।

 ब्रह्मणस्पतिरेतासं कर्मार इवाधमत्‌ । देवानां पूज्ये" युगेसतः सदजायत ।२।

 देवानां युगे प्रधमेसतः सदजायत ॥ तदाशा अन्वजायत तदृत्तानपदस्परि ।३॥ 

 भुज॑ज्ञ उत्तानपदो भुव आशा अजायंत ॥ अदितेद्॑नो अजायत दक्षाद्वदितिः परि , ।४।

 अदितित्यं जनिष्ट दक्षया दुहिता तव ।! तां देवा अन्वजायत भद्रा अमृतबेधवः ॥५।।      

                                                                                                               ऋ. सं. १०. ७२.

Meaning (1 & 2)

We describe the birth of Gods in plain words, which even though born in the former yuga sees the reciter (स्तोत्र ) in the later part of the yuga, while शास्त्र were sung likeकर्मार ब्रह्मणस्पति created the Gods. The sat was created from asat in the first half of divine yuga.(3) the sat was created from asat in the first divine yuga then the directions came into existence and were followed by uttana-pad

(4) The uttana-pad gave birth to the Earth, which, in turn, gave birth to directions. Daksha was born of Aditi. Aditi was born from Daksha.

(5 ) Oh Daksha! The praiseworthy and the immortal Gods were born after your daughter Aditi.

To summarise,  some kind of existence was followed by directions and then the creation of Earth. There are numerous mentions in the Vedas about the creation and the order of the universe. 

Interestingly, a verse in Taittiriya Brahmana 2.8.9 says (summary) “Who knows whence and how this Universe was created? Or who can tell? Who knows him from whom the world was created? Perhaps no one knows, even if he knows this or not” 

In describing the configuration of the Universe, several verses mention the place above the Earth, the sky and the heavens. There is a definite mention, stating that the universe is divided into Dyu/sky, Antariksh/space, and Prithvi/ Earth and the description of each of these divisions. 

However, nowhere in the Vedas, do we find the division of the universe into Swarg, Prithvi, and Patal. 

“Pale Blue Dot” is a video by the  Astronomer, Carl Sagan, indicating the universe's infiniteness and how small the Earth is! (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wupToqz1e2g)

The Infiniteness of the Universe and the small size of the Earth, as compared to it, had already been described in our Vedas. Long before Carl Sagan tried to explain

This verse expresses a perception, that the Earth is very small compared to the expansive universe. 

यदिन्विं्र पृथिवी दशभुजिरहानि विश्वा ततनंत कृष्टयः I

अत्राह॒ ते मघवन्‌ विध्रुतं सहो यमनु शवसा बहंणा भुवत्‌ II                                                             

                                                                                                       ऋ. सं. १, ५२. ११.

Meaning: “If the Earth were to magnify itself to ten times its size (and if) men were to live for eternity, then and only then, the glory of your famous might and valour would be equalled by the heavens”

The term ten times is symbolic. The idea that the Universe s infinitely greater than the Earth is clearly stated in this verse.

Taittiriya Samhita 3.11.1 also describes in detail the expanse of the universe.

The Sun

Several verses describe the Sun, stating how it causes the seasons,(there are many quotations to show that seasons were created by thenSun)  and how it is the sole support of all the worlds. There is a description of the Sun's chariots having seven horses. The statements are more metamorphic as the Sun has neither a chariot nor any horses. 

अनरवो जातो अनभीशुरर्वा कनिकरदत्पतयदध्वंसान्‌ : |  

                                                                                      ऋ. सं १. १५२. ५.

Meaning: The Sun without horses swiftly jumps up in the sky

However, a verse in Rk 8-72-16 clearly states that the sun has seven rays. Does this description convey the modern theory that the Sun's rays consist of seven colours?

Earth Round and Supportless

 The people in the Rgvedic age knew that the earth is round and supportless

चक्रा मासः  परिनाहम  पृथिव्याहिरण्येन मणिना शुभमानाः ॥

 न हिन्वानासस्तितिरुस्त इंद्रं परि स्पशो अदधात्सूर्येण । 

                                                                                               ऋ. सं. १, २३.

Meaning:- " The messengers, who are, shining with golden ornaments were unable to vanquish Indra, even when they were flying round the earth's periphery with speed. He then covered them with Sun's light"

 ^{It clearly shows ancient people were aware that the is not flat but round. Earlier than what Aristotle (384-322 BCE) found out.}

^{..........to be continued}

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1. SB Dixit in part 1, Pages 1 to 6 

2. S Kak, Knowledge of Planets in the third millennium BC.

Interpreting the Universe-2

Branches of Astronomy

The three branches of Astronomy, namely Ganit, Samhita and Hora/Jatak deal with separate subjects, though some portions may be common to some branches. With the progress of time and the updating of knowledge, some branches got merged.

The Ganit branch has three sections 

 i. Siddhant सिद्धांत 

 ii, Tantra तंत्र

 iii, Karana करण

Of the Siddhant and Tantra sections, one deals with the calculation of planets' places 

and the other primarily describes the structure of the Universe to include, knowledge of the celestial sphere, construction of instruments and units of measurement of time and other connected subjects.

The Karana deals with planetary calculations only.

Different definitions of these sections are also found in the ancient texts. The subject matter has been intermingled in it.

The Samhita branch consists of two parts. One deals with the movement of planets and their mutual conflicts, the consideration of benefic or malefic effects of comets, meteors, eclipses and omens on the world. 

The other part deals, with the selection/consideration of auspicious moments for starting events in an individual's life.

The Hora/Jatak branch, consisted of the study of the ascendant in a birth horoscope,to forecast events in life. Later it was divided into two parts. The study of ascendant was known as Jatak and the other was known as Tajik. Tajik also considered the study of events in life but from the ascendant of the annual horoscope. Tajik came into vogue around 1200 Saka/1122 CE.

The aim of our astronomy is to know the actual planetary positions. Accurate knowledge of mean motion and their position comes from accurate knowledge of the true position and motion of the planets. 

The primary subject of the mathematical branch of astronomy is to know the true position and motion of the planets.

Mean Motion. Counting the number of revolutions of a planet in a given epoch/time, and converting this revolution into, average daily motion is called the Mean motion. Panchsiddhantika पंचसिद्धांतिका has a record of such revolutions.

True Motion. The motion of planets, as observed, is not the same. Eg, Jupiter's movement varies from 1' to 15' and sometimes retrograde. This daily motion is termed as true motion and this position is found. The planet is actually found to be near or ahead of the position, calculated from its mean motion.

The history of astronomy can be ascertained from the references to astronomy in the ancient texts. to know the Mean motion and True motion of planets. 

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Reference: Bhartiya Jyotish Shastra Part I

 

Interpreting the Universe

Celestial phenomena are joyful to watch, they are both amazing and, at times, frightful to watch. Eclipses, the passage of comets and shooting stars inspire a sense of awe and possibly instil fear in some minds, even now.

Initially, these phenomena could have been regarded as fearful and portentous of divine wrath. Christopher Columbus used this to his advantage to the natives of an island, stating that the Sun god would hide when he was displeased and then reappear subsequently. Also, it is a known fact that around 584 BC, the 5-year war between Lydia and Media came to an end, because both the warring factions were horrified by the  Solar eclipse which occurred during that time.

Mahabharat has similar incidents recorded of two eclipses within 13 days resulting in tremendous loss of life. The Puranas do mention such phenomena preceded the calamities.

Having known the natural units of time, day, month and year created by celestial phenomena. The seasons are due to the movement of the Sun and tides due to the Moon. A curious mind would definitely have commended the quest for astronomical knowledge.

Agriculture, the mainstay of survival, depended upon the celestial phenomena. He quickly learnt that the field may yield a bumper crop if the seeds are sown at a particular position of Sun and Moon in the sky, and the crops destroyed in another set of combinations.

Furthermore, it was natural to assume that, if the heavenly bodies have close association with worldly affairs, they must also affect the individual life as well. Given out by the various combinations of the Sun Moon stars etc.

This quest for knowledge led to the creation of three branches of Astronomy, namely. त्रिस्कंध

1. गणित- This branch is also known as सिद्धांत. The mathematics part deals with the calculation of the number of days in a year, occurrence of eclipses, Moon phases, position of planets etc.

2.  संहिता- The knowledge of the effects of eclipses, comets, planetary conflicts and knowledge on auspicious days for performance of various rites.

3. होरा/जातक. Deals with the knowledge, which enables one to the benefic and malefic effects of the particular position of the planets 

Narad observes that

सिद्धातसंहिताहोरारूपं स्कधत्रथार्मक । वेदस्य निर्मल चश्षुरज्यतिःशास्त्रमनृत्तमः ॥; नारदरसंहता. १. ४.

Meaning-" The excellent science of astronomy comprising Siddhanta, Samhita and Hora as its three branches is the clear eye of the Vedas "- Narad Samhita 1.4

Mahadev,(1185 Saka year) who commented on Sripati's Ratnamala says:-

प्रहगणितपाटीगणितजीजगणितरूपसूनिशचलम्‌लस्य बहुविधविततहोरातंत्रल्ाखस्थ भ्योतिःशास्त्र वनस्पतेः संहितार्था एव फलानोत्यवधाथं, ज तकममनासकरणमौजोबंघनविवाहूयात्रानौ निखिलसंहितायमल्पग्रयेनाभिधातुभिच्छः. .. 

Meaning " I am desirous of describing in brief, the interpretation of Samhita rules, which are to be followed while performing ceremonies relating to, post-natal sacrament, naming a child, thread ceremony,etc. Knowing fully well that Samhitas are fruits of tree od astronomy, of which various forms of Horas are the branches of elementary arithmetic, algebra and calculation of planetary places are the firm roots"

The most ancient of the astronomical works these days is the वेदांग ज्योतिष, dealing with mathematical aspects only..अथर्ववेदांग ज्योतिष may be a later work, dealing with the 2nd and 3rd branches of astronomy. 

There were certain works in which these three branches were discussed together.. Such type of work did exist and is known by the name Samhita.

Varahamira says in his Brhat Samhita 

ज्योतिःशास्त्रमने कभेदविषयं स्कंधत्रयाधिष्ठितं ॥ | तत्कात्स्थोपनयस्य नाम मृनिभिः संकीत्यंते संहिता ।॥ अध्याय १

Meaning " The science of Astronomy, which comprises a variety of subjects is established mainly on three branches. But the treatment of the subject in its entirety is also named Samhita"

References " Bhartiya Jyotish Shastra Part 1