Vedic Period-2

  Astronomy During the Vedic Period-2

Time Units

KALPA and YUGA are common terms and, are understood as some unit of time denoting a specific period. However, KALPA is not used as a unit of time in Vedas, though it is used extensively during the post-Vedic period.

YUGA as a unit of time, finds a mention in the Vedas in several places. These references in the Vedas suggest that the word yuga does denote a certain period of time. This period is not quantified but is a smaller period of  5 to 10 years.  For example as given in the following verses

 युगे ुगे विदध्यं मृणद्भ्योगनेरथि यशसं धेहि नव्यसीं ॥ 

                                                                   | ऋ. स. ६. द. ५.

"Oh! God of fire, give riches and success to us who offer new words of praise to thee for the  sake of sacrifices in each yuga"__ Rk Samhita

था ओषधीः पूर्वां जाता देवेभ्यस्त्रयुगं पुरा ।

                                      ऋ. सं, १०. 8७. १.

"The herbs created by Gods in three yugas before" ----Rk Samhita. The Scholars have interpreted " Triyuga" as three yugas Kreta, Treta and Dwapar or three seasons Vasant, Varsha and Sharad.

All these references show yuga is used to denote some period, after which the event repeats itself. A periodic nature of time after which a phenomenon recurs, like an eclipse, planet rotations etc.

The word Yuga is used for 

 Emotional, Symbolic, calculation and calendric. Do, not confuse with Dwapar, Treta, Kali...of 432000 years as the duration of Yuga. These are used for calculation purposes.

In Vedang Jyotish, the yuga is taken to be a cycle of 5 years. The names of these years are संवत्सरः,परिवत्सरः,इदावत्सर:' अनुवत्सरः,इद्वत्सरः. These names occur in the Vedic texts but they do not occur in the Vedang Jyotish. There are many verses which mention these years in the ancient Vedic texts. it appears to be a system similar to the 5-year cycle of Vedang Jyotish. 

                    The months were Lunar and the Year was Solar

The caption appears odd, how can we have two different systems to count the same duration. However, this appears logical as most of the astronomical database was compiled by observation during the Vedic age.

It was natural in the Vedic age that the month was counted from the Moon. "Puranmasi", which we understand as the full Moon literally means the tithi on which the month ends. MASA a synonym for Moon was adopted as a time unit for months.

Numerous verses describe the year, having  12 months (13th month as intercalary for adjustment),360 days. The description is, both direct and indirect,for example

्रीणिच वशतानि षष्टिर संव॑त्सरस्याहानि.--सप्त च वं रतानि विंशतिश्च संवत्सरस्थाहोरात्रयेः `                                                             ए. ब्राः ७. १७.

"A year has 360 days , a year has 720 days ans nights together"

 Taitareya Brahman 3.8.3 describes the year and intercalary month, metaphorically as under

दा दशारत्नी रहना कतेव्यए २ च्रथोदशारत्नी देरिति ॥ ऋषभो वा एष ऋतूनां ॥ यत्संवत्सरः ।। तस्य त्रयोदशो मासो विष्टपं ।

॥ ऋषभ एष यज्ञानां ।॥

। यदहवमेधः॥ यथावा ऋवभस्व विष्टपं !! एवमतस्य विष्टपं ॥            ते. त्रा. ३.८. ३.

"Should the reigns in a horse sacrifice be 12 cubits in length or 13? The year of (six) seasons is a kind of bullock whose hunch is the 13th month. The horse sacrifice is the best of all sacrifices..."

The seasons are formed due to the Sun, therefore it was logical to assume that a year has elapsed when a particular season returns, hence the year counting was solar. Full moon to full Moon would then constitute a masa or a month. So the year was solar and the month Lunar.

To keep the seasons and the corresponding month synchronised with the actual environment, some adjustment was done  to match the Lunar month and the Solar year. The indirect reference to intercalary month points to the fact, that some methods were adopted for synchronisation.

As the months were Lunar, the year counting would also have been Lunar, but the Lunar year did not have 360 days, but less than that. However in practice a savan/solar year was in use and hence a mention of intercalary month adjustment, as mentioned above.

 However, In the Hijri calendar the month, say, Muharram, will pass through all seasons because the adjustment is carried out after 33 years (instead of 30-32 months).

There is no reference to any rule, stating how the intercalary month be adjusted during the Vedic age. However, Vedang Jyotish does give out the rules of adjustment in the later period.

Apart from the solar year, we have references to the Savana and Lunar years. There is no reference to Sidereal and Jovian years in the Vedas.

Days

 A Lunar month has only 29 1/2 days, not 30 days as is understood. So in two months, the total number of days is 59. This discrepancy of 1 day needs adjustment. 

A verse from Taittriya Samhita 7.5.6 says

                              षउहर्मासात्संपाचाहरत्सु्चंति             | त. सं. ७.५. ६.

" A day is omitted after some sadahas and masa are observed"

The reason for omitting the day is mentioned in Taittriya Brahaman 5.10.2

                                   यथा वे टतिराध्मात एवसंवसरोनुत्सुष्टः

" If a day is not omitted then the year will swell like bellows made of leather"

Interestingly in the Vedic period, One day of 24 hrs is called 'aha' अह: and a group of six such days are called sadahas and five sadahas make one masa (month) and several such sadahas and masas constituted to make 360 days of savanna year.

So a 6-day week and a 5-week month were prevalent during the Vedic period.

There is no mention of a 7-day week and the names of the 7 days of the week, during the Vedic period, as we know it today.

The only mention is of the 15th day as panchadashi पञ्चदशी. Other terms such as pratipada dwitiya etc may have been used to denote (day one, day two etc), day and nights (what we understand as Tithi), words like Shukla Chaturdashi, and Krishna Panchami have been found to denote the day of light and the dark half of the month.

As per, Taittriya Brahaman different names have been given for the days and nights in the light and dark half of the month. There are 15 names for day and 15 names for night.

 अह: is used to mention a day in a neuter gender form, whereas the word रात्रि, is feminine, hence the names of the nights are used in feminine gender. So ahoratra अहोरात्र is day and night. Hora होरा doesn't come from अहोरात्र.

Tithi

 We all are familiar with the word Tithi तिथि, meaning a day in Lunar month. However, during the Vedic  period, there is no mention of the word तिथि,(the way we understand it today)

                                       Length of the Day

The variable length of the day is due to the Sun.

The following lines in Rk Samhita 8.48.7 describe the phenomena. 

सोमराजन्‌ प्रण आयू'षि तारीरहानीव सूर्यो वासराणि ॥

                                                          ऋ. सं, ८. ४८. ७.

"Oh! Somraja! Increase the length of our lives, just as the sun increases the length of the day, which are dwellings of the world"

The Equinoctal Day

There are a lot of references to the equinox in the Vedas, during this period. The mentions are in the form of annual sacrifices, and that period mentioned relates to the equinox as an indirect meaning. But there is no explicit definition of equinox, on which the days and nights are equal.

........to be continued with parts of the Day.

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References

1. SB Dixit " Bhartiya Jyoti's Shastra" Part 1

2. William Brennand " Hindu Astronomy"

3. Coolebroke Essays.

4. Gen Alexander Cunningham "Book of Indian Eras"

5. Dr Nilesh Oak talks.

Vedic Period

 Astronomy During the Vedic Period-1

The Vedas contain astronomical information but are not exclusively focused on it. Vedic literature deals with a whole lot of topics. A general inference can be drawn from the astronomical mentions in the Vedas. It also shows that the astronomical ideas developed in stages, starting from the Vedic era.

A glance at the Vedas will show, that there exist sufficient references(1) of the description of the sky, Sun, Moon and the stars. The mentions include but are not limited to, the Origin of the Universe and its infinities, Description of the Sun and how it affects the Earth and its inhabitants, description of Earth, Moon and units of time and how it was used, etc.

The knowledge of astronomy gradually developed over the ages and each generation contributed to the texts and upgrading it. 

The astronomical references during the Vedic period were in poetic form and, at times, indirect. One has to understand the etymology to know the intention of the originator.

The Creation, Structure and Origin of the universe1as given in the following verse from Rk Samhita 10.72 

देवानां नु वयं जाना प्रवोचामं विपन्यया ॥ उक्थेषु शस्यमानेषु यः प्यादृत्तरे युगे ॥ १।।

 ब्रह्मणस्पतिरेतासं कर्मार इवाधमत्‌ । देवानां पूज्ये" युगेसतः सदजायत ।२।

 देवानां युगे प्रधमेसतः सदजायत ॥ तदाशा अन्वजायत तदृत्तानपदस्परि ।३॥ 

 भुज॑ज्ञ उत्तानपदो भुव आशा अजायंत ॥ अदितेद्॑नो अजायत दक्षाद्वदितिः परि , ।४।

 अदितित्यं जनिष्ट दक्षया दुहिता तव ।! तां देवा अन्वजायत भद्रा अमृतबेधवः ॥५।।      

                                                                                                               ऋ. सं. १०. ७२.

Meaning (1 & 2)

We describe the birth of Gods in plain words, which even though born in the former yuga sees the reciter (स्तोत्र ) in the later part of the yuga, while शास्त्र were sung likeकर्मार ब्रह्मणस्पति created the Gods. The sat was created from asat in the first half of divine yuga.(3) the sat was created from asat in the first divine yuga then the directions came into existence and were followed by uttana-pad

(4) The uttana-pad gave birth to the Earth, which, in turn, gave birth to directions. Daksha was born of Aditi. Aditi was born from Daksha.

(5 ) Oh Daksha! The praiseworthy and the immortal Gods were born after your daughter Aditi.

To summarise,  some kind of existence was followed by directions and then the creation of Earth. There are numerous mentions in the Vedas about the creation and the order of the universe. 

Interestingly, a verse in Taittiriya Brahmana 2.8.9 says (summary) “Who knows whence and how this Universe was created? Or who can tell? Who knows him from whom the world was created? Perhaps no one knows, even if he knows this or not” 

In describing the configuration of the Universe, several verses mention the place above the Earth, the sky and the heavens. There is a definite mention, stating that the universe is divided into Dyu/sky, Antariksh/space, and Prithvi/ Earth and the description of each of these divisions. 

However, nowhere in the Vedas, do we find the division of the universe into Swarg, Prithvi, and Patal. 

“Pale Blue Dot” is a video by the  Astronomer, Carl Sagan, indicating the universe's infiniteness and how small the Earth is! (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wupToqz1e2g)

The Infiniteness of the Universe and the small size of the Earth, as compared to it, had already been described in our Vedas. Long before Carl Sagan tried to explain

This verse expresses a perception, that the Earth is very small compared to the expansive universe. 

यदिन्विं्र पृथिवी दशभुजिरहानि विश्वा ततनंत कृष्टयः I

अत्राह॒ ते मघवन्‌ विध्रुतं सहो यमनु शवसा बहंणा भुवत्‌ II                                                             

                                                                                                       ऋ. सं. १, ५२. ११.

Meaning: “If the Earth were to magnify itself to ten times its size (and if) men were to live for eternity, then and only then, the glory of your famous might and valour would be equalled by the heavens”

The term ten times is symbolic. The idea that the Universe s infinitely greater than the Earth is clearly stated in this verse.

Taittiriya Samhita 3.11.1 also describes in detail the expanse of the universe.

The Sun

Several verses describe the Sun, stating how it causes the seasons,(there are many quotations to show that seasons were created by thenSun)  and how it is the sole support of all the worlds. There is a description of the Sun's chariots having seven horses. The statements are more metamorphic as the Sun has neither a chariot nor any horses. 

अनरवो जातो अनभीशुरर्वा कनिकरदत्पतयदध्वंसान्‌ : |  

                                                                                      ऋ. सं १. १५२. ५.

Meaning: The Sun without horses swiftly jumps up in the sky

However, a verse in Rk 8-72-16 clearly states that the sun has seven rays. Does this description convey the modern theory that the Sun's rays consist of seven colours?

Earth Round and Supportless

 The people in the Rgvedic age knew that the earth is round and supportless

चक्रा मासः  परिनाहम  पृथिव्याहिरण्येन मणिना शुभमानाः ॥

 न हिन्वानासस्तितिरुस्त इंद्रं परि स्पशो अदधात्सूर्येण । 

                                                                                               ऋ. सं. १, २३.

Meaning:- " The messengers, who are, shining with golden ornaments were unable to vanquish Indra, even when they were flying round the earth's periphery with speed. He then covered them with Sun's light"

 ^{It clearly shows ancient people were aware that the is not flat but round. Earlier than what Aristotle (384-322 BCE) found out.}

^{..........to be continued}

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1. SB Dixit in part 1, Pages 1 to 6 

2. S Kak, Knowledge of Planets in the third millennium BC.

Interpreting the Universe-2

Branches of Astronomy

The three branches of Astronomy, namely Ganit, Samhita and Hora/Jatak deal with separate subjects, though some portions may be common to some branches. With the progress of time and the updating of knowledge, some branches got merged.

The Ganit branch has three sections 

 i. Siddhant सिद्धांत 

 ii, Tantra तंत्र

 iii, Karana करण

Of the Siddhant and Tantra sections, one deals with the calculation of planets' places 

and the other primarily describes the structure of the Universe to include, knowledge of the celestial sphere, construction of instruments and units of measurement of time and other connected subjects.

The Karana deals with planetary calculations only.

Different definitions of these sections are also found in the ancient texts. The subject matter has been intermingled in it.

The Samhita branch consists of two parts. One deals with the movement of planets and their mutual conflicts, the consideration of benefic or malefic effects of comets, meteors, eclipses and omens on the world. 

The other part deals, with the selection/consideration of auspicious moments for starting events in an individual's life.

The Hora/Jatak branch, consisted of the study of the ascendant in a birth horoscope,to forecast events in life. Later it was divided into two parts. The study of ascendant was known as Jatak and the other was known as Tajik. Tajik also considered the study of events in life but from the ascendant of the annual horoscope. Tajik came into vogue around 1200 Saka/1122 CE.

The aim of our astronomy is to know the actual planetary positions. Accurate knowledge of mean motion and their position comes from accurate knowledge of the true position and motion of the planets. 

The primary subject of the mathematical branch of astronomy is to know the true position and motion of the planets.

Mean Motion. Counting the number of revolutions of a planet in a given epoch/time, and converting this revolution into, average daily motion is called the Mean motion. Panchsiddhantika पंचसिद्धांतिका has a record of such revolutions.

True Motion. The motion of planets, as observed, is not the same. Eg, Jupiter's movement varies from 1' to 15' and sometimes retrograde. This daily motion is termed as true motion and this position is found. The planet is actually found to be near or ahead of the position, calculated from its mean motion.

The history of astronomy can be ascertained from the references to astronomy in the ancient texts. to know the Mean motion and True motion of planets. 

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Reference: Bhartiya Jyotish Shastra Part I