HIndu Calendar- Eras 3

 Eras

“हम अंग्रेज़ों के ज़माने के जेलर हैं” This famous dialogue from a film summarises what an era is and how life is affected due to an era. The following regnal eras elaborate on this.

Harsha Era

  The era was founded by हर्षवर्धन, of Thanesar and Kanauj, from the 1^st year of his reign. Al Biruni mentions the beginning of this era, referring to Panchang /Almanack available in Kashmir, as 664 years after Vikram Samvat, 664-57=607 CE. He ruled from 606 CE to 647 CE 

An inscription of Bhoj Deva of Kannauj, Pehowa inscription from the temple of Garibnath, is dated as 276 in figures and in words (translated as two hundred exceeded by seventy-six Shukla paksha of Vaishakh ) –Samvat 276 Vaishakh sudi 7.

So, referring to the Harsha era, the inscription is dated 606+276=882 CE

Inscriptions discovered in Nepal by Pandit Bhagwan Lal are records of King Amshuverma of Nepal. They are dated as Samvat 34, 35, 45, etc. When converted by adding 606, these denote the actual dates of his reign. There is no specific mention of the Harsha era, but it implies that the Harsha era was used for dating in Nepal, before the advent of the Newar era (introduced by King Raghavdeva in 880 CE)

It is not clear whether theचैत्रादी or  कृतिकादी system was in use in this era

The period of Harsha is well documented in 'हर्षचरित्र' written by बाणभट्ट (author of the famous Sanskrit prose ‘ कादम्बरी’). The writings of Chinese scholar Hiuen-Tsang, who visited Harsha’s court, also provide great detail about Harsha and India of Harsha’s time.

He also tried to extend his kingdom beyond the Narmada but failed to do so.  He faced a defeat at the hands of Pulakesin II, the Chalukya king of Badami. The Aihole inscription in Badami, Karnataka, mentions this event

 Harsh Ka Tila

 

 

Hijra Era

 The era used in the Islamic lunar calendar. It begins its count from the Islamic New Year, in which Muhammad and his followers migrated from Mecca to Yathrib (now Medina) in 622 CE. This event, known as the Hijrah,  

Khalif Umar I introduced the Hijrah era, now distinguished as AH, in 639 CE.

He abolished the earlier practice of (Pre-Islamic, Arabic Lunar Calendar) naming the years (similar to Hindu Samvatsar in a 60-year Jovian cycle) and started numbering the years. Umar started the first year AH with the first day of the lunar month of Muḥarram (there was no set order of months during the pre-Islamic era). Muharram became the 1^st month of the Hijri year.

This event corresponds to Friday, July 16, 622 CE

Another sect in Islam begins the Hijri year with the month of Rabi' Al-Awwal, rejecting Muharram as the starting month. Consequently, there is a variation in the dates of certain festivals depending on the system followed.

The year is purely Lunar, and the month begins with the first heliacal rising of the moon after the new moon. The year consists of 354 days and 355 days in intercalary years.

The months have alternately 30 and 29 days each, with an extra day added to the last month eleven times in a cycle of thirty years. These are usually taken as the 2^nd, 5^th, 7^th,10^th , 13^th , 15^th , 18^th, 21^st , 24^th , 26^th , and 29^th  in the cycle, but some consider  the 8^th , 16^th19^th, and 27^th as intercalary instead of the 7^th, 15^th, 18^th and 26^th.

Ulug Beg mentions the 16^th as a leap year. It may be taken as certain that the practice varies in different countries, and sometimes even at different periods in the same country.

Trivia- To find whether any given year is intercalary, then divide it by 30 and if the remainder is one of the numbers given above, then the year is intercalary by 355 days.

 Since each Hijra year begins 10/11 days earlier, in a span of 33 years, the Hijri year runs through the whole course of seasons. 

For example, the Month of Ramadan as compared with the Gregorian calendar

• In 1431 AH was on 11 Aug 2010
• In 1441 AH was on 24 Apr 2020
• In 1451 AH will be on 6 Jan 2030 and 1452 AH on 26 Dec 2030(phenomena similar to Adhik maas because of the use of the Lunar calendar and seen wrt the Gregorian Calendar. The Same phenomenon was seen in 1997)
•  In 1452 AH, 26 Dec 2030
• In 1462 AH will be on 07 Sep 2040

However,Hindu Lunar calendar does  intercalation  every 30 months. Hence, the months and seasons are in sync. One can relate a month to a season and vice versa. This makes the Hindu calendar a Luni-Solar calendar.

Since the Hijri year invariably begins with the heliacal rising of the moon, or the first observed appearance on the western horizon shortly after the sunset following the new moon. (अमावस्या) It is actually the Shukla Pratipada, 1^st tithi, of the Hindu calendar. As, however, the Hijri day—contrary to Hindu practice, which counts the day from sunrise to sunrise—consists of the period from sunset to sunset, the first date of a Hijri calendar month is always entered in the Hindu Panchang as corresponding with the following Hindu civil day.

Since the beginning of the Hijri calendar month depends on the heliacal rising of the moon, the month may begin a day earlier at one place than at another, and therefore, the following month may have more days than the other.

Different Variations of the Hijri Calendar

Tabular Hijri Calendar: The Tabular Hijri is a mathematical adaptation of the calendar, it standardises the length of the year, and uses fixed calculations. This technique is frequently utilised for historical and scholarly purpose but often , it doesn’t correspond with real moon observations.

Solar Hijri Calendar: This calendar is mainly utilised in Iran and Afghanistan. The Solar Hijri Calendar corresponds with seasonal events like the Persian New Year (Nowruz) and differs from the conventional lunar-based Hijri calendar.

 30 Jun 2025 will be 5 Muharram 1447 AH 

Bengali San

This era is still in use in W Bengal and eastern regions (with different names), though CE and Gregorian calendar is used for commercial and administrative purposes. However all festivals and religious rituals are conducted as per Bengali San.

Bengali Calendar is also called BANGABDA Calendar or Bengali Samvat, BS

 It is the official calendar of Bangladesh (It is a revised version of the original Bengali calendar)

The Saka Era (Vikram Samvat) was widely used in the Bengal region before the arrival of Muslim rule. Some historians claim that this era was started by Akbar, but it is not so. Akbar started the Ilahi and Fasli eras (These eras will be explored in later blogs).

Epigraphical evidence mentions that the Bikrami calendar was in use by the Bengali people of the region, pointing to Vikram Samvat. In rural Bengali communities, the Bengali calendar is credited to "Bikromaditto", like many other parts of India and Nepal.

King Shashank or Shashank deva, created the first separate political entity and state called as Gauda Kingdom. This was around the unified area of Bengal (see map).He reigned in 7th century, and some historians place his rule approximately between 590 and 625 at decline of Gupta empire.

 बाणभट्ट mentions King Shashank and his rule in the Gauda region in his text, हर्षचरित्र. Al Biruni also describes the Gaud region in the east in his texts.

Shashank is credited with the start of the Bengali calendar around his reign during 594 CE.

He continued to follow Vikram Samvat, using lunar months and sidereal solar years, in short, the Vikram solar calendar (Also used in southern India with some modifications).

The Year starts from मेष संक्रांति (Sun entering मेष राशि) and is called वैशाख, around 13/14 April. The New Year is celebrated as ‘Poilo Baishakh”.Though the Tamil area calls the month Chaitra. The era is denoted as BS

30 Jun 2025 will be 15^th Ashar 1432 BS

Trivia- The whole of Gauḍa was once known as Gauḍa Desh. The Bengali language was also known as Gauḍiya Bhasha… The older generations call  Bengalis as Gauḍiya. The script is Proto-Bengali, also known as the Gaudī script, and is the ancestor of the modern Bengali script. It evolved from the Siddhamātrika script and is considered an Eastern Indian derivative of it. Odiya, Assamese are other derivatives of this script.

The Magi-San.—This era was prevalent in the District of Chittagong. It is very similar to the Bengali calendar, the days and months in each being exactly alike. The Magi is, however, 45 years behind the Bengali year,' e.g.. Magi 1200= Bengali 1245.

Vilayati and Amli Era

This era is in use in south south-southwestern regions of the Bengal region, now Odisha. The calendar and its arrangements are similar to those of Bengali San. It uses a solar year, but the months use lunar names. The year begins with कन्या संक्रांति(Virgo) day . The months start on the sankranti day itself, unlike the Bengal rule (see Hindu Calendar 3 of 5 ). By the 16^th to 17^th century, the vilayati year is supposed to commence from Krishna paksha of Chaitra. (as per Warren in his text ‘Kala Sankhalita’, 1825). The epoch of this era is the same as 592/593 CE. As of date, the year starts with solar mesh Sankranti in the lunar month of Baishakh.

Amli era, The era commences from the birth of King Indradyumna of Odisha, onभाद्रपद शुक्ल द्वादशी, and the months commence from the moment the Sun enters the new sign. This day is also the festival of ‘ Sunia’. This era was used for business purposes and is now considered the start of a financial year.

The कन्या संक्रांति can take place on any day from about 11 days before भाद्रपद शुक्ल द्वादशी to about 18 days after it. With the difference of so many days, the epoch and the numerical designation of the Amli and Vilayati years are the same.

30 Jun 2025 is आषाढ़ शुक्ल पंचमी 1432 Vilayati Era

............... more eras in India follow

__________________________________________________________

References:-

1.  Bhartiya Jyotish Shastra- SB Dixit
2. The Indian Calendar- Robert Sewell and SB Dixit
3. Cowasjee Patells Chronology
4. The book of Eras- Gen A Cunningham
5. Indian Antiquary, Vol XII, pp 155, Dr Bühler
6. Prof F Kielhorn - Indian Antiquary  Vol XIX
7. Inscriptions of Harayana- SR Phogat,1978
8. Gauda Kingdom by Dr Avantika Lal
9. The Calendars of India by VK Mishra, PhD 
10. Girish Chandras' Chronological tables, 1894

 

 

Hindu Calendar-Eras 2

 Eras

Different regions of India have used various eras for their accounting years, ranging from  Luni-solar to solar systems, Amanta and Purnimanta methods. These differences in practice arise from the adoption of distinct interpretations of Hindu science by various tribes and kingdoms.

When a segment of people migrate out of their home place to another, they continue to use their own era, calendar, notwithstanding that another era may be in use in the new place. In doing so, they tend to mix up the calendar and treat it from their own point of view. This is one of the main problems while ascertaining the antiquity of the past. 

It is therefore difficult to point out the kind of year, Solar or Luni Solar, arrangements of months and fortnights to a particular era. However, one thing is certain: Luni Solar years follow the Chaitradi system, and Solar years follow the Meshadi system to their corresponding solar reckoning.

Chedi or Kalchuri Era

Some inscriptions and plates were found at the beginning of the 19^th century in central and western India, mentioning the reign of the Kalchuri dynasty. These artefacts, when studied by archaeologists, mentioned some dates, which did not correspond to the usual Saka or Vikram era, but referred to a different era.

Prof Keilhorn, Dr Bird, Capt Wilford, Gen Cunningham, Dr JF Fleet, were a few who tried to interpret these artefacts and coins of the Kalchuri dynasty to know the era's beginning. The earliest attempt was made by Pandit Bhagwanlal Indraji; his dates were approximate.

The scholars ruled out the Gupta era or the Valabhi era, in the absence of characters and dates on coins, referring to them as’ Gupia-kala, Guptasya kala, Gupta-Nripa-rajya-bhukti, or Gupta Sam’

The first, and approximately correct, conjecture about the epoch of the era was made in 1859 by Prof Fitz-Edward Hall in his article on the Behra-Ghat inscription of Alhanadevi, dated Samvat 907, and the Tewar inscription of Jayasimhadeva, dated Samvat 928.

All these scholars presented their estimated dates for the commencement of the era. Nearly a hundred-plus artefacts were examined to arrive at a conclusive beginning date of the era. The challenge was due to the practice of mentioning expired years and ignoring the intercalated years.

The research and study established that the Kalachuri era commenced on the purnimanta Karttika, ie, the 6th October, In 248  CE.

However, this was in conflict with the earlier conclusion of the examination of other dates and artefacts. It was concluded that the era commenced on the Kartik month(Amanta System) in 249 CE.

The earlier dates come from artefacts found in Gujarat and Maharashtra, while the later dates were obtained from North India and Chhattisgarh.

A general system was to date events in the regnal years of the ruling king. When the Kalachuris established themselves in Chhattisgarh, they introduced an era which they had been using in their home province of Dahala for several centuries. It, therefore, came to be designated as Kalachuri-Samvat. The other name, Chedi-Samvat or Chedisasya Samvat, was also appropriate, for the Imperial family to which the Tuman branch, in Chatisgarh, showed allegiance, which was then ruling over the Chedi country.

Ruins of Mahadev Temple, in Tuman, Chhattisgarh.

 

The 1^st day of the 1^st current year of Chedi Year, corresponds to अश्विन शुक्ल प्रतिपदा of चैत्रादी Vikram Samvat,306 current(Saka 171 current 05 Sep 248 CE), months are पूर्णिमांत, अश्विनादी years. Chedi's current year 0 is equal to 247-248 CE.

The CE date is obtained by adding 248/249 or 249/250 (depending if the expired or current year is used ) to the Chedi Year.

Gupta Era

Dr. J.F. Fleet, while examining the inscriptions from the Gupta period, observed that the feudatories and successors of Chandragupt II and III had inscriptions with dates arranged in a continuous sequence. This led him to believe that these inscriptions were connected to a specific era. However, he was uncertain whether the dates belonged to the Gupta era or the kingdom. He found a reference to the alliance between the Guptas and the Lichchavis of Nepal, which was established around 319/320 CE. Based on this, he presumed that the dates were part of the Gupta era, although he had no evidence to support this claim.

Al Beruni did mention the ‘Gupta Kal’ in his book “Al Biruni’s India”, but could not authenticate it with any evidence. Though he mentions that the Gupta era was founded 241 years after the Saka era, this corresponds to 318/319 CE. He did not specify the start or the conclusion of an era.

Later, researchers and scholars did find evidence of the existence of the Gupta era. Some of these are

• Date 61 is inscribed on the Mathura pillar inscription.
• Sarnath Buddha image inscription, of the reign of Kumargupta and Budhagupta
• Allahabad Posthumous Stone Pillar Inscription of Samudragupta

Allahabad Stone Pillar Inscriptions

The era started from the coronation of King Chandragupta I, corresponding to 319/320 CE

Interestingly, only 7 inscriptions of the Gupta era have been found to mention “Samvatsar” in the records of the Early Gupta period, which give full details for calculation, regarding the heliacal-rising system of 12 /60 year Jovian cycle. This confirmed that the Jovian cycle was used, for calendric purposes, in the Gupta period.

The Gupta era years are current and follow चैत्रादी, पूर्णिमांत, of Saka 242 (current), corresponding to 319/320 CE.

Valabhi/Ballabhi Era

Next in chronological sequence, but slightly overlapping some of the preceding records, come the inscriptions of the Kings of Valabhi, ranging from 436 CE to 766 CE. Of the numerous copper-plate inscriptions of this family that have been discovered, apart from the full genealogical tree which they give, including twelve generations, they make known the historical fact that the Senapati Bhatarka, the founder of the family, successfully waged war against, and overthrew, a dynasty, tribe, or clan called Maitrakas, the Maitraka dynasty of Vallabhi: this resulted in the era being called the "Vallabhi" era in the Maitraka-ruled territory.

 According to the inscriptions, the Gupta era was prevalent in Kathiawar and some neighbouring parts of Gujarat, at least as late as 766 CE. It was more of a continuation of the Gupta era, with the name changed to the Vallabhi era.

The beginning of the year was thrown back from चैत्र शुक्ल प्रतिपदा to the previous कार्तिक शुक्ल प्रतिपदा; hence, its epoch went back by five months, and is synchronous with the current कृतिकादी Vikrama year 376, corresponding to 318/319 CE. The months appear to be पूर्णिमांत अमंता. This is because Vikram Samvat was in use in the area around Gujarat, whose year began in theकार्तिक month

Map showing different kingdoms during 590 CE.

 

.............to be continued with the eras prevalent  in India 

___________________________________________

References:-

1.  Bhartiya Jyotish Shastra- SB Dixit
2. The Indian Calendar- Robert Sewell and SB Dixit
3. Cowasjee Patells Chronology
4. The book of Eras- Gen A Cunningham
5. Indian Antiquary , Vol XII ,pp 155 Dr Bühler
6. Prof F Kielhorn - Indian Antiquary  Vol XIX
7. The Kalchuris and Their Times, RK Sharma, 1980
8. Inscriptions of the Kalchuri–Chedi Era, Vasudev Vishnu Mirashi,1955
9. Age of Imperial Guptas, Prof RD Banerji, 1933
10. Origin of the Gupta-Valabhî Era. G. Bühler
11. Rise and Fall of Imperial Guptas, Ashwini Agarwal, 1989

 

Hindu Calendar -Era

 Era

Natural phenomena in the zodiac are used to record the passage of time. The art of writing afforded the means to record the exact succession of events and epochs. In chronology and periodisation, an epoch or reference epoch is an instant in time chosen as the origin of a particular calendar era. The "epoch" serves as a reference point from which time is measured.

We have eras for cosmological, calendric and historiographical purposes. Hindu cosmology was mentioned in the previous blog.

 Non-Regnal Eras

Grahaparivritti Cycle 

This cycle is a chronological system used in southern India. It is a cycle of 90 years based on the the sum of the products in days of 15 revolutions of Mars,22 Mercury , 11 Jupiter,5 venus, 29 Saturn and 1 for Sun. The epoch occurs in 27 BCE on termination of 3078 of Kali yug. It is a sidereal year. To convert to CE date add 24 and divide by 90 to know the number of cycles till date.

 2025 CE will correspond to 

2025+24=2049, 2049/90= 22 cycles, 68.9 years.

 Buddha Era

The Buddhist Era was first introduced to Southeast Asia along with Buddhism in the early centuries BCE. It was not a separate calendar but they employed the organization and calculation methods of the prevailing lunisolar calendars in use throughout the region.

Prof HH Wilson, orientalist, mentions actual data for the epoch of elder Buddha as 1000 BCE (based on the data provided by various authors/scholars and Chinese travellers) .

Evidence for existence of second Buddha was around 6^th century BCE. This is as quoted by the Sinhalese, Burmese, and Thailand texts of the epoch of around 544/543 BCE the date of attainment of nirvana by Buddha.

In all Theravada traditions, the calendar's epochal year 0  date was the day in which the Buddha attained parinibbāna. However, not all traditions agree on when it actually took place. This calendar is still in use in South East Asian countries , including Sri Lanka .

2025-2026 CE is 2569 BE

 Regnal Eras

Era of Parshuram

This era is primarily used in south western coast, starting from Manglore down to southern tip of the peninsula. It is named from the prince Parshuram who is supposed to have ruled around 1176 BCE. The era is measured in 1000 years cycles. At the end of the cycle the year starts with 1 again. 1^st cycle ended on 176 BCE , the 2^nd cycle ended on 824 CE. This, 3rd cycle, is also the start of the Kollam era in Kerela. It is a sidereal year, with the year starting when the Sun enters कन्या राशी. 

2025 CE corresponds to 4^th cycle and 201 completed years

  Vikram Era or VIkramaditya Samvat 

This era is said to have been established by King VIkramaditya of Ujjain, to commemorate his victory over sakas. There is no historical basis for this event and all origins are debated.A new discovery of the “ Indravarman relic casket”dated in the years of King Azes I, who is presumed to have established era , which later became known as ‘Vikram era’. This inference was arrived at,  on chronological and archaeological grounds by the archaeologists and scholars.

Early Jain texts mention Vikram Samvat for dating. शत्रुंजय महात्म्य professes to have been written 477 years after Vikrama. This corresponds to 420 CE. This era is said to have been established by Vikram Raja 470 years after Mahavira , 527 BCE-470 =57 BCE

There are inscriptions which mention the dates along with the celestial events like eclipses, new moon etc.These have helped in obtaining the correct epoch of the historical events  Through the various inscriptions and copper plates ,studied up to 19^th century CE  of this era, it was seen that

•  The years' quoted are expired years; current years are used only on exceptional occasions.
•  The era commenced with the year, as a कृतिकादी system, but later the era also adopted the चैत्रादी system, this practice was up to 14^th century of Vikrami era.
• It was more common to find that the कृतिकादी year was coupled with the Purnimanta system and the  चैत्रादी system with the Amanta system.However neither of the systems was sacrosant with the year being followed.

This era was,also, called “ Malwa Era” from 450 to 850 CE. The present day it is called a ‘Vikram Samvat’. Samvat is more of an abbreviation of the word Samvatsar, meaning a year and now ‘samvat’ is used to denote any era.

The era is counted from 56/57 BCE

The era is in use in present day Gujarat and some parts of Northern India, except Bengal and eastern region. In northern India, the year is चैत्रादी and the months are purnimanta. Whereas in areas around Gujarat the year is कृतिकादी and the months are amanta.

•  चैत्रादीsystem, the year starts in Mar/April
• कृतिकादी system, the year starts in Oct/Nov
•  मेषादि system , the year starts in April, with the Sun's entry in  मेष राशि
• Amanta System, the month is counted from new moon to new moon
• Purnimants system, month is counted from full moon to full moon.

01 Jun 2025 corresponds to 

  ज्येष्ठ  शुक्ल  षष्ठी Vikram Samvat, 2081 ( कृतिकादी and Amanta system)- Gujarati Calendar

 ज्येष्ठ  शुक्ल  षष्ठी , Vikram Samvat, 2082 ( चैत्रादी and Purnimanta system) – Northern India ,except Bengal and Eastern region.

Christian Era

This era has come into use in India since the British rule. Beginning of the year, month January, corresponds to Hindu months of Paush/ Magh in both systems. It is Gregorian calendar. The calendar was corrected to synchronise with zodiac in October 1752 CE.It is followed all over the world.

Saka Era

This era is also called as ‘Saka kal’ ,’ Saka Bupa kal’and ‘Sakendra kal’. Or the era of king Shalivahan Saka. There is a legend which says that Vikramaditya defeated and killed King Saka in a battle near korur , between Multan and fort Luni. But this vikramaditya is different from the one mentioned above and there is no historical basis of this story.The historical origin is controversial and various theories are surrounding it are not authenticated.

The earliest authentic epigraphic reference to this era by name ‘Saka’ is ‘Vala Inscription of Suketuverman dated 322 Saka”.

The first indication of a relationship between King Shalivahana and the Saka era was mentioned by Somaraja, in his work उदभक्त  काव्य , in Kannada.

Varahmihira started to use Saka kal for astronomical works. All karana works use this era.

This era is used extensively for astronomical calculation purposes. However, astronomers from Vedic period up to Aryabhata appear to have used Kali Yuga or Yuga system for all astronomical calculations.

This era is used, almost all over India, except some parts of Kerala/Malabar, where the Kollam era is used. Its years are चैत्रादी for lunisolar and मेषादि for solar. Months are Purnimanta in Northern India and Amanta in Southern India. The reckoning of this era is assumed from चैत्र शुक्ल प्रतिपदा, in 78 CE

Some Panchang mention the years as expired, but later, a tendency has set in to mention the current years. Hence, there will be some confusion regarding correct dates while examining ancient texts, inscriptions, archaeological findings and data. The correct year is often confirmed with the actual references to the astronomical and historical data.

60 years of Jupiter cycle is specified along with both Vikram and Saka  era. See previous blog on Jovian Cycles.

 Indian national calendar follows the Saka era, Amanta system, New Year starting from 21/22 March, the Vernal equinox.

01 Jun 2025 CE will be

 ज्येष्ठ  शुक्ल  षष्ठी 1947 (completed), as per Saka calendar

ज्येष्ठ  शुक्ल  एकादशी 1947,as per Indian national calendar.

.........other Indian eras follow

 __________________________________

References:-

1.  Bhartiya Jyotish Shastra-SB Dixit
2. The Indian Calendar- Robert Sewell and SB Dixit
3. Cowasjee Patells Chronology
4. The book of Eras- Gen A Cunningham
5. Calendar Reforms Committee Report  
6. Prof F Kielhorn - Indian Antiquary  Vol XIX
7. Indian Epigraphy- Richard Salmon

 

Hindu Calendar -Jovian Cycles

 

Hindu Calendar- Era

ब्रहस्पती चक्र or Jovian Cycles

The cycle of Jupiter is considered as one of the most ancient chronological systems, not only in India, but in Tibet, China, and Myanmar

But why did Jupiter cycles come into prominence? I think, just as we count short periods

• From sunrise to sunrise – One day
• From lunation to lunation of Moon- One Month
• From season to season – One Year. A twelfth part is one month
• Jupiter’s orbit around the Sun is 12 years. A twelfth part is one Solar year or a Jovian month.

Jupiter takes about 12 years to complete a round of the zodiac. (Actually, it takes 4332.59 days or 11.862 years)

This method was easy to monitor, time longer than one year, as one could observe Jupiter returning to its original position at the end of 12 years. Observing a 60-year cycle was not practical and was hence calculated as per siddhantas and Karana works.

Jupiter has two cycles, the 12-year and 60-year cycles, which were/are being followed. The 60-year cycle originated from the original 12-year cycle of Jupiter.

12-year Cycle of Jupiter

The Vedic people observed that Jupiter takes about 12 years to complete a round of the zodiac. In fact, the orbits of the Sun and Jupiter are around the Barycenter, so the Sun also orbits around Jupiter in 11.8 years.

The word संवत्सर  was initially used in the sense of Jovian year. This 12-year cycle is of two kinds. In one case, the संवत्सर receives its name from the heliacal rising. Two consecutive heliacal rising of Jupiter will be a Jovian month or a Solar year. These Jovian months /Solar years were called चैत्र संवत्सर, वैशाख संवत्सर and so on. This system is known as ‘उदयपद्धति. ’ In a 12-year cycle, there will be 11 heliacal risings; therefore, one samvatsar is suppressed/expunged. This system was found inconvenient however, it was in use up to the 6^th century CE. This system has references in Mahabharat texts and hence is the original system. This system was in use in the Tamil and Telangana areas. Several inscriptions on stones and copper plates around the period 397 to 450 saka (475-528 CE) in the Gupta era have used this system to denote years.

 Inscriptions belonging to King Mrigverma of the Kadamba dynasty mention the years as महा पौष, महा वैशाख, indicating this type of Samvatsar.

The other system, which uses the correct mean motion of Jupiter, its transit through one zodiac sign was considered as one year. In this system, no samvatsar was suppressed. It is called ‘मध्यम राशि पद्धति’ This system is in use as of date but not utilised for civil purposes.

60-Year Cycle of Jupiter

Vedang Jyotish refers to a system of 5 years yug, considering this as Jovian year, this led to a cycle of 60 years.

As stated earlier, the word संवत्सर was used in the sense of the Jovian year. The solar year was called वर्ष. There was also a system of assigning names to years, starting with प्रभव,विभव, and शुक्ल….. up to क्षय, a total 60 years in order. . Since this 60-year cycle originated from Jupiter’s movement, they are also called ब्रहस्पती चक्र or Jovian years. The sixty संवत्सरare divided into 3 groups of 20  संवत्सरeach. The first 20, from प्रभव to व्यय, are assigned to ब्रह्मा ,the next 20 from सर्वजित् to पराभव to  विष्णु and the last 20 to शिव

In the beginning, the संवत्सर were counted from the heliacal rising of Jupiter, but later, this system was abandoned, and the mean sign system was adopted. As the length of a Jovian year is less than the solar year, 86 Jovian years occur in 85 Solar years. So 1 year in 85 years has to be suppressed.

As stated above, a shift to the Luni solar calendar made calculations easier and hence most of southern India adopted this system wef Saka 827 (905 CE). Due to this, the samvatsar years began to lag behind those mentioned in northern India for the same year. Today, there is a mismatch, and there will be different samvatsar for the year, depending upon the system and the era being followed.

 सूर्य सिद्धांत,ज्योतिषतत्व ,आर्य सिद्धांतgive out the rules of calculating the samvatsar. All three have a different datum of Jupiter's motion for calculation. These rules can be seen from the references given below.

Jovian cycles in other countries

These 12 and 60-year cycles were and are in use in Tibet, China, and Myanmar.

Tibet. There are two series of Jovian cycles. One is a translation of Indian names, and the other is a translation of Chinese names. The Tibetan calendar closely resembles the Hindu calendar. Tibetans calculate their ages using a 12-year Jovian cycle, while other life events are measured using a 60-year cycle. Both cycles have unique names and sequences that are similar to those in the Hindu tradition. There is no suppression of a Jovian year.

China. Chinese Lunar calendar follows a 12-year cycle, and each year is represented by an animal which form the Chinese zodiac. The cycle repeats after 12 years. This was the basis of their 60-year cycle, with names for each year. Their days are distributed in the calendar into cycles of 60, which repeat after 60 years. 

Myanmar. Inscriptions found in Myanmar during the period 11th to 13^th century CE indicate the use of Jovian cycles. One such translated inscription of Pagan mentions a date as ” In the era 551(1189 CE) Tharawan year…” here Tharawan is Indian Shravan, however 1189 CE corresponds to Maha Jyestha, but 1191 CE / 553 is Maha Shravan. The method of dating indicates that the Jovian cycle was in use along with a similar Hindu calendar.

Common to all these measurements is the Jupiter transit in the zodiac, which has triggered the formation of various systems and methods of accounting epochs.

Trivia and Usages of 12-year cycles

These Jovian cycles of 12 and 60 appear to have been in use in day-to-day life from early times. Attaining 60 years of age is celebrated all over India in some form. Jupiter, Saturn and the Sun have orbital periods of 12, 30, 1years (approximately) around the earth. LCM of these is 60, and all three have the same sidereal coordinates where they were 60 years before.

• Vanvas for Pandav’s was for 12 years +1 year of hiding. Was it due to the Jovian cycle? 1 year of hiding to cater for the lapsed year?
• Mahamastakabhisheka is an important Jain festival held once every 12 years.
• Kumbh Mela. This Mela is held every 12 years based on the position of Jupiter
• The 12-year cycle Mahamaham festival in Tamil Nadu is observed in the Hindu calendar month of Magha and is a symbolic equivalent of the Kumbh Mela.
• As per old Malabar law, “Kanam” was one of the modes of land tenures prevalent in the erstwhile Malabar, including the present Kozhikode District. It was the ‘highest’ form of tenancy. Kanam entrustment was usually for a period of twelve years. Kanom entrustment was renewable at the option of the tenant after the expiry of 12 years.
• Article 65 to Schedule I of the Limitation Act, 1963 prescribes a timeline of 12 years, within which an aggrieved person may file a suit for the recovery of possession of immovable property. (May have been amended as of date)

There are many other aspects which have a 12-year cycle. They may not be connected with Jupiter's transit, but a 12-year period appeared to be a practical duration for counting. A trend set in earlier times continues to this day for civil use, though some of them would have been amended. 

How did these cycles originate? It is still unclear, and their purpose and usage remain a mystery. These cycles are still mentioned today in most Panchangs in India.

The current corresponding संवत्सर for 2025-2026 CE. The figure in brackets denotes the संवत्सर number. 1^st संवत्सर starts with प्रभव

 Saka 1947-विश्वावसु (50^th)

Vikram Samvat 2082- कालयुक्त(52^nd)

Gujrati Samvat 2081- नल (39^th)

 It can be seen that संवत्सर are not the same for the reasons mentioned above.

Jupiter’s transit through various signs has great significance in astrology.

Today, we have vast amounts of texts and treatises available on Jovian cycles. But none can explain the origin and purpose.

___________________________________________________________________

References:-

1.  Bhartiya Jyotish Shastra-SB Dixit
2. The Indian Calendar- Robert Sewell and SB Dixit
3. Cowasjee Patells Chronology
4. The book of Eras- Gen A Cunningham
5. Calendar Reforms Committee Report 

Hindu calendar 5 of 5 – Cosmology and Era

Cosmology and Era

Chronology and Geography are the eyes of history, and an attempt to understand or know it without their aid becomes meaning less and confused. At the same time, chronology without history is equally dry and insipid. Recording the succession of time and events becomes meaningful for the future to understand the past.

For accurate date and time recording, we require a continuously running time accounting system besides the month and the day. Presently, we use the Christian Era (CE) for continuous accounting.

We find dated records of kings in Babylon from about 1700 B.C. (Kassite kings). They used regnal years. In fact, most eras are regnal, including those used in India.

Hindus view this continuous timeline in a slightly different form. The baseline of the Hindu faith is that time is not linear, as is generally understood, but cyclical. Therefore, we do not find any numbered years, especially during the Vedic period. The years had names and were repeated on completion of the cycle; the samvatsar system was one such cycle used.   After 60 years and 14 days, they repeat themselves.   So, when you complete one cycle of 60 years, you celebrate the Shashtiabdapoorthy, and when you have completed 1000 Pakshas (fort-nights), you celebrate the Sathaabhishekam.   The West has a linear timing which travels only in one direction.   They will never return to year 1 BCE or 2024 CE.   These are gone forever.   After a few million years, you will have a year with several digits!

 Post-Viedic period, we do have regnal eras.

 Hindu calendars, both Lunisolar and Solar, have an astronomical base for accounting. Anyone with a fair knowledge of astronomy can guess the day and month by looking at the sky.

Cosmological Cycles

The structure of Hindu astronomy is built upon the foundation of a unique concept of cosmological time cycles. No other culture is known to have such a unique system of Cosmology. The Mayan culture is close to it.

The astronomical quantities derived from these cosmological time cycles are vastly more accurate than anything achieved by the Greeks or Babylonians.

Most ancient Indian texts mention a large cosmic cycle of 4,320,000 years and even a larger period of 1000 times or, कल्प. The exact meaning and purpose of these cycles have perplexed scholars. I think the purpose may be to record a continuous period to know the turn of the cycle. The events then could be related to a particular cycle or a sub-cycle. These cycles are mentioned along with legends with an allegoric mix to explain the astronomical phenomena to a layman.

Arriving at such a large period is akin to the calculation of

•  Day and night- 24 hrs for those living on Earth
• The two fortnights, light and dark half of a lunar month- analogous to day and night of pitri’s/ manes/ forefathers.
•  Two halves of a tropical year, uttarayan (bright half) and dakshinayan(dark half), as day and night of the gods. For an observer on the poles, it is day and night.
• 360 such whole days define a year of gods
• 12000 divine years of gods constitute 4,320,000 years called mahayug.

This mahayugमहायुग is divided into 4 yug, known as चतुर्युग . Their duration decreases in the ratio of 4:3:2:1

Infrastructure of the चतुर्युग period  

कृतयुग	Divine Years	Solar years
Dawn	400	144,000
कृतयुग	4,000	1,440,000
Twilight	400	144,000
Subtotal	4,800	1,728,000
त्रेतायुग
Dawn	300	108,000
त्रेतायुग	3,000	1,080,000
Twilight	300	108,000
Subtotal	3,600	1,296,000
द्वापरयुग
Dawn	200	72,000
द्वापरयुग	2,000	720,000
Twilight	200	72,000
Subtotal	2,400	864,000
कलियुग
Dawn	100	36,000
कलियुग	1,000	360,000
Twilight	100	36,000
Subtotal	1,200	432,000
Total	12,000	4,320,000

An interesting point in this system is the inclusion of the two twilight periods, one before and one after, with each equal to one-tenth of the total period. It resembles the two twilight periods in a day. Each twilight period lasts as long as the time during which the Sun is less than 18 degrees below the horizon and 18 degrees is one-tenth of 180 degrees or the Sun’s path above the horizon. The entire sequence of these large periods appears to be based on this logic.

It also gives an insight to the frequency of repetition of Eclipses at the same place and time of the year at the end of each कल्प.

We are still mystified by these vast periods. It was presumed by astronomers, scholars of earlier centuries that in 4,320,000 years, the planetary positions, including the Moon nodes, returned to their starting positions, marking as end or the beginning of a yug. Surya Siddhant also states similar calculations.

 With the help of the latest methods of calculation and software, it has been observed that the planets do not align at these epochs. However, large periods can be justified with he help of Vedic texts.

A lot of information and views of various scholars are available on cosmic cycles and large periods for further reading.

Era

The earliest non-regnal eras as seen in India are, Saptarishi Era, बृहस्पति मानस or the Jovian cycle (Jupiter cycle) and the Kali Era. In dealing with dates in the Indian eras, one must remember that every year that is mentioned by a number, that number actually refers to the number of years elapsed. So if a year is mentioned as 1946 saka, that means 1946 years have elapsed, and 1947 is the current year. This system has been prevalent from the beginning. Though, one can see some changes to this ancient practice.

 सप्तऋषि काल

 This system of measuring time originated in the supposition that the सप्तऋषि stars (The great bear) have motion. They take 100 years to move from one nakshatra to another. Thus, a cycle of 2700 years has been adopted for reckoning time. In practice, on completion of 100 years, the counting begins afresh. This era is in use in Kashmir, Multan and the adjoining hill areas of Himachal. राजतरङ्गिणी, a historical chronicle of kings in Kashmir, written by Pandit Kalhan in, 11th century CE, has described all historical events wrt this era. This era is also known as ‘ Laukika Kal”(Civil Time), Shastra Kal (Scientific time), and Pahadi Samvat. The years in this system are current and ‘Chaitradi’, the months are Poornimanta.

As per Vishnu and Bhagwat Puran when the first two stars rise and a nakshatra is observed in between/near them , the seven rishis continue to stay together for a 100 years. They also mention that the sapta rishi’s were placed near magha nakshatra at the time of Mahabharat war.

 According to Kashmiri astronomers, this era began from Chaitra Shukla Pratipada, in the current kali year of 27. Bhatotpala , disregarding  Varahmira's views, quotes Garga,that at the junction of dwapar and Kali yugas, the sapta rishis were in Magha(10^th ) nakshatra and had completed 25 years.

Gen Cunningham, in his book (pp10-14), has mentioned that, at the time of Alexander, the सप्तऋषि chakra of 2700 years was a common mode of Indian reckoning. Garga had also arrived at this conclusion. The starting point of this era is not clear. There is, also, a contrarian view stating that there is no connection of this era with सप्तऋषि or its movement.

Kali Era

As given out earlier, this yug is the last part of the चतुर्युग. The universally accepted date of its beginning is 3102 BCE (completed) 3101 BCE current. This year of 3102 BCE is accepted as 0 year of Kali yug.

This era was used in astronomical works and in almanacs. It uses both types of years, चैत्रादी  (Luni Solar) and मेशादी(Solar). This era is not used for civil purposes, however, almanacs of Tamil Nadu and area around do use and state the year according to Kali era.   

This era was first mentioned by Aryabhatt while quoting his age in the following couplet.

 षष्ठयब्दानां षष्टियंदा व्यत्रीतास्त्रयक्च युगपादाः ।।

 व्यधिका विशं तिरब्दस्तरेह ममजन्मनोतीतः: ॥   -- कालृक्रियापाद

‘Aryabhata says that he was 23 when sixty 60-year cycles(i.e., 3600 years) had elapsed after the three yugapadas, that is in the 3600^th  “ Kali Elapsed’ year, which is same as Saka 421(499 CE). This shows that his birth year was Saka 398(476 CE). This implies the Kali era commenced wef 3101 BCE.

Kali era is also mentioned in verses 33–34 of the Aihole inscription, in Badami, Karnatak, which mentions the date to be the year 3135 after the Bharata war, or saka samvat 556. This corresponds to 634–635 CE.

 Aihole inscription

त्रिमशत्सु त्रिसहस्रेशु भरत अहवदितः सहब्दासतयुकेत्शु गतेश्वरब्देधु पञ्चसु

The interpretation on this inscription has generated a lot of disagreements amongst the scholars in ascertaining the antiquity of the Era and that of Mahabharat War.

 Kali era was in use till varahmira’s (499 CE) time. Varahmira found that the kali era was not practical for use in astronomical calculations. He started to use the Shalivahan Saka era (the Saka era will be discussed in later blogs) for astronomical calculations.

 The calendar reforms committee, 1952, has remarked as 

Quote” It is easy to show that the Kaliyuga era which purports to date from 3102 B.C. is really extrapolated just like the Christian era, introduced long after the supposed year of its beginning” Unquote.

 Prof PC Sengupta, in his report submitted to the calendar reforms committee, has shown that the longitudes of the planets, the Sun and the Moon are not zero at the beginning of the ‘0’ kali yug as is assumed. This is even after taking into consideration the value of precession, as per Surya Siddhant. The latest software also corroborates the same results.

 We have unearthed a lot of archaeological evidences of ancient civilisations, Nevali Cori ,for example,which gives a different perspective to antiquity of ancient texts, civilisations and epochs. Interpretation of vedic and other ancient texts, by Indian scholars have completely changed the accepted narrative as handed over to us by Non-Indian scholars.

Every verse of Vedic/ancient texts is a treasure house of astronomical information and phenomena. A correct interpretation is the need of the hour. Presently, a piecemeal interpretation of ancient texts creates more confusion than solving the mystery. 

 A lot of research is required in these aspects to dispel the misconception about our rituals and astronomical knowledge.

 

The next non-regnal era is the बृहस्पति मानस, or the Jovian cycle. This will be covered in the next blog 

______________________________________

References:-

1.  Bhartiya Jyotish Shastra-SB Dixit
2. The Indian Calendar- Robert Sewell and SB Dixit
3. Cowasjee Patells Chronology
4. The book of Eras- Gen A Cunningham
5. Calendar Reforms Committee Report 
6. The celestial key to the Vedas- BG Sidharth.